Understanding The Pan-African Movement: A Historical Perspective

The Pan-African movement is a worldwide movement that aims to unite all indigenous peoples and diasporas of African ancestry. It is a belief that African people, both on the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a common destiny. The movement extends beyond continental Africans and has a substantial support base among the African diaspora in the Americas and Europe.

The origins of the movement can be traced back to the struggles of the African people against enslavement and colonisation. The movement is based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, and political progress. It stresses the need for collective self-reliance.

The Pan-African Congress series of meetings began with the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. The movement has influenced the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity (since succeeded by the African Union) in 1963.

The origins of the Pan-African movement

Pan-Africanism, as a formal movement, began around the start of the 20th century with the African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, which was established in 1897 by Henry Sylvester Williams. Williams also organised the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. This was the first meeting designed to bring together people of African descent to discuss Pan-Africanist ideas.

The first formal Pan-African Congress took place in 1919 in Paris and was called by W.E.B. Du Bois, one of the most important early Pan-Africanist intellectuals, along with Martin Delany, Alexander Crummel, and Edward Blyden. Du Bois was also the most prominent member of the US delegation at the 1900 conference.

The second Pan-African Congress took place in 1921 in London, Brussels, and Paris. This meeting resulted in a declaration that criticised European colonial domination in Africa and called for a fairer distribution of the world's resources.

The movement continued to gain momentum with the third and fourth Pan-African Congresses in 1923 and 1927, respectively. However, it faded from the world stage until the fifth Pan-African Congress in Manchester, England, in 1945. By this time, leadership of the movement had largely transferred from African Americans to Africans, with Kwame Nkrumah, Jomo Kenyatta, and George Padmore playing prominent roles.

The goals of the Pan-African movement

The movement's goals can be summarised as follows:

• To establish a sense of brotherhood and collaboration among all people of African descent, whether they live inside or outside of Africa. This includes fostering solidarity and unity among the African diaspora in the Americas and Europe, as well as with continental Africans.
• To secure independence and liberation for African nations from colonial rule and white supremacy. This involves ending oppression, racism, and neocolonialism, and promoting self-government and self-determination.
• To achieve economic, social, and political progress through unity. This includes promoting industrialisation, trade, and economic integration across the continent, as well as advocating for socialist principles and opposing external political and economic involvement.
• To empower African people globally, particularly through an all-African alliance, which would "unsettle social and political (power) structures...in the Americas".
• To promote and celebrate African culture, values, and historical legacy. This includes reclaiming traditional African thought and cultural practices, as well as educating people about African history and culture.
• To address women's issues and ensure the inclusion and representation of women in the movement, recognising their contributions and achievements.
• To establish an "African Identity" in global affairs, advocating for the interests of African states in international relations, and promoting non-alignment between major powers.

The history of Pan-Africanism intellectuals

The history of Pan-Africanist intellectuals is a rich and complex one, dating back to the mid-19th century and the struggles of African people against enslavement and colonisation. The movement, which aims to unify and uplift people of African descent, has seen the contributions of numerous influential thinkers and activists over the years. Here is a brief overview of the history of Pan-Africanism intellectuals:

The early years of Pan-Africanism

Pan-Africanist ideas began to circulate in the mid-19th century, led by Africans from the Western Hemisphere. Notable early Pan-Africanists included Martin Delany and Alexander Crummel, both African Americans, and Edward Blyden, a West Indian. These pioneers emphasised the commonalities between Africans and Black people in the United States, advocating for separation and the establishment of a new nation in Africa. While their ideas were important, the true father of modern Pan-Africanism was W.E.B. Du Bois, a prominent scholar and advocate for the study of African history and culture. Du Bois's famous statement, "the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the colour line", reflected his Pan-Africanist sentiments.

The early 20th century and the rise of Marcus Garvey

In the first decades of the 20th century, Jamaican-born Black nationalist Marcus Garvey emerged as a significant figure in the Pan-Africanist movement. Garvey championed African independence and the positive attributes of Black people's collective past through his organisation, the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). However, his efforts to facilitate the return of Black people to Africa and promote global Black commerce were ultimately unsuccessful.

The interwar years and the influence of Trinidadian intellectuals

During the interwar years, C.L.R. James and George Padmore, both from Trinidad, were prominent advocates of Pan-Africanist ideas. Padmore, in particular, was a leading theorist of Pan-Africanism until his death in 1959. Other influential intellectuals during this period included Léopold Senghor of Senegal and Aimé Césaire of Martinique, both of whom were greatly influenced by Du Bois and the Harlem Renaissance writers.

The shift to African leadership in the late 1940s

By the late 1940s, the intellectual leadership of the Pan-Africanist movement shifted from African Americans to Africans, due in part to the leftist sympathies of many advocates and the Red Scare in the United States. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana emerged as a pivotal figure, believing that European colonial rule in Africa could be overthrown through political and economic unity. Nkrumah went on to lead Ghana's independence movement, achieving success in 1957 to the cheer of many African Americans.

The resurgence of Pan-Africanist cultural thinking in the 1960s and 1970s

In the late 1960s and 1970s, Pan-Africanist cultural thinking experienced a resurgence in the United States, coinciding with the Black Power movement. African Americans increasingly explored their African cultural roots and adopted African forms of cultural expression.

The emergence of the Afrocentric movement

In subsequent decades, the most prominent current of Pan-Africanist thought was the Afrocentric movement, espoused by intellectuals such as Molefi Asante, Cheikh Anta Diop, Carter G. Woodson, and Maulana Ron Karenga. The Afrocentric movement emphasised African modes of thought and culture as a corrective to European domination.

Pan-Africanism in the 21st century

In the 21st century, Pan-Africanism continues to evolve and adapt to new challenges and opportunities. The movement, which advocates for the unity and empowerment of people of African descent worldwide, has embraced modern tools and platforms to advance its goals. The digital revolution, including social media and the internet, has played a significant role in connecting and strengthening the bonds between Africans and the diaspora. This has facilitated a sense of collective identity and solidarity, with Twitter, in particular, becoming a space for Africans and the diaspora to engage and interact.

The Pan-African movement has also leveraged digital media and online platforms to enhance educational opportunities for children and adults across the continent. Organisations like Ubongo, which produces educational content for children, have contributed to improved learning outcomes, with millions of children benefiting from their programmes.

The establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) is another significant development in the 21st-century Pan-African agenda. This free trade zone connects nations across the continent, with a combined GDP of over US$2.5 trillion, and is expected to boost trade, industrialisation, and economic integration.

Additionally, the African Union, successor to the Organisation of African Unity, has proposed a free movement policy, inspired by the European Union, to allow residents of member countries to move freely within the continent and participate in economic activities. This proposal reflects the ongoing pursuit of continent-wide solidarity and integration.

However, challenges remain. Globalisation and increased connectivity have also brought new complexities, with persistent issues such as inconsistent treaty implementation, ineffective governance, and continued foreign economic involvement. The involvement of traditional powers like the US, UK, and France, along with the growing influence of countries like China, has led to what some call a "new scramble for Africa."

Despite these challenges, Pan-Africanism in the 21st century remains a dynamic and evolving movement, adapting to modern tools and contexts while staying true to its core principles of unity, empowerment, and the pursuit of a shared destiny for all people of African descent.

Pan-Africanism's critics

Pan-Africanism has faced criticism from various quarters. Critics have accused the ideology of homogenising the experiences of people of African ancestry, and pointed to the difficulties of reconciling current divisions within countries on the continent and within communities in the diaspora.

Kenyan left-wing journalist Philip Ochieng wrote in 1971:

> Nor does it matter if the same masses know anything about the movement. Pan Africanism was a movement of a self-interested class.

Kwame Nkrumah was viewed with suspicion by many of his contemporaries, who regarded him as a "megalomaniac whose only real ambition is to rule the entire African continent". Most newly independent African countries opposed Nkrumah's desires for a politically unified Africa because they viewed it as a threat to their national sovereignty. Ivorian president Félix Houphouët-Boigny was a staunch opponent of Nkrumah, and the two came into conflict with each other.

Pan-Africanist organisations such as the Organization of African Unity have been accused by people such as Tanzanian president Julius Nyerere of being a "committee of dictators" that doesn't protect the rights of Africans. African leaders who served as chairpersons of the Organization of African Unity and the African Union such as Ugandan president Idi Amin, Zimbabwean president Robert Mugabe, and Libyan president Muammar Gaddafi have been accused of severe human rights violations while using Pan-Africanist rhetoric to legitimize their authority. Malawian economist Thandika Mkandawire states:

> One major weakness of Pan-Africanism and Africa's regional arrangements has been the failure to protect Africans from their homemade tyrants. Pan-Africanism has not been seen as reinforcing and guaranteeing people's rights as citizens of their respective nations. Solidarity in the name of Pan-Africanism has cast a pall of darkness on horrendous deeds by African dictators from corruption to genocide.

Another criticism of Pan-Africanism is that it is irrelevant for contemporary issues affecting postcolonial Africa, and it is thus "stuck in the past". Pan-Africanism has been accused of placing too much focus on a superficial monolithic "African" or "black" identity while ignoring the complex ethno-religious differences and conflicts that exist among Africans (especially in Nigeria, where independence leaders abandoned national unity after independence in favour of promoting the interests of their own ethnic groups over others). It has also been noted that the ideology relies on constructing a "common foe" such as colonialism in order to maintain its relevance and legitimacy.

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