Who Promoted Pan-Arabism: Mid-Century Leaders

Pan-Arabism is a political movement that emerged in the 19th century and reached its peak in the 1950s and 1960s. It advocated for the unification of all Arab people in a single nation-state, consisting of all Arab countries in West Asia and North Africa. The movement was closely connected to Arab nationalism and was driven by middle-class and bourgeois urban actors. The idea gained popularity in the Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire, and several attempts were made to establish a pan-Arab state. One of the key figures who supported Pan-Arabism in the mid-twentieth century was Gamal Abdel Nasser, the second president of Egypt, from 1956 until his death in 1970. Nasser's popularity soared after the nationalization of the Suez Canal, and he became an important figure due to his modernization efforts and anti-imperialist attitudes.

Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt's second president, supported Pan-Arabism

Nasser was an Egyptian military officer and politician who served as Egypt's second president from 1954 until his death in 1970. Nasser's popularity in Egypt and the Arab world skyrocketed after his nationalisation of the Suez Canal Company and his political victory in the subsequent Suez Crisis. Calls for pan-Arab unity under his leadership increased, culminating in the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria from 1958 to 1961. Nasser's supporters gained power in several Arab countries, and he began his second presidential term in March 1965.

Nasser's support for Pan-Arabism was driven by his belief in Arab unity and his opposition to Western political involvement in the Arab world. He sought to empower Arab states against outside forces by forming alliances and promoting Arab socialism. Nasser's popularity and influence as a leader made him a charismatic and effective proponent of Pan-Arabism, and his death in 1970 marked a turning point for the movement.

Despite setbacks and criticism, Nasser remains an iconic figure in the Arab world. He is remembered for his strides towards social justice, modernisation policies, and anti-imperialist efforts. Nasser's presidency encouraged an Egyptian cultural boom and the launching of large industrial projects, such as the Aswan Dam. His supporters admired his accessibility and direct relationship with ordinary Egyptians, as well as his ability to symbolise the popular Arab will.

Jurji Zaydan played a key role in the intellectual foundation of Pan-Arabism

Pan-Arabism is a political movement that emerged in the mid-to-late nineteenth century and gained prominence in the 1960s. It advocated for the political, cultural, and socioeconomic unity of Arabs across various decolonised states. While Gamal Abdel Nasser, the second president of Egypt, was a prominent supporter of Pan-Arabism in the mid-twentieth century, Jurji Zaydan played a crucial role in laying the intellectual foundation for this ideology.

Jurji Zaydan, a Lebanese novelist, journalist, editor, and teacher, was born in Beirut in 1861. Despite his humble beginnings and limited education, Zaydan had a profound impact on Arab thought and literature. He was a key figure in the Nahda movement, which aimed to establish a secular pan-Arab national identity. Through his writing, Zaydan sought to educate the common Arabic population about their history and promote modern ideas.

Zaydan's most notable contribution was the creation of the magazine "Al-Hilal," which he used to serialise his historical novels. He wrote with the primary goal of making Arab history accessible and entertaining to the general public. Zaydan's novels, centred on Islamic history, were less focused on character development and more on providing an accurate portrayal of historical events. He believed that education was crucial for societal progress and modernisation, and his works reflected his commitment to individualism and self-realisation.

Beyond his novels, Zaydan authored several scholarly works, including "The History of Islamic Civilisation," "The History of the Arabs Before Islam," and "The History of Arab Literature and Culture." These works contributed to the development of a secular Arab nationalism and helped foster a sense of community among Arabs through their shared history.

Zaydan's influence extended beyond his literary endeavours. He advocated for the establishment of Cairo University and the Majma’ Al Lughawi, a language authority modelled after the Académie Française. Additionally, he played a significant role in the evolution of the Arabic language, arguing for its modernisation to integrate scientific and modern terms.

In conclusion, Jurji Zaydan was a pivotal figure in the intellectual foundation of Pan-Arabism. Through his writing, scholarship, and linguistic contributions, he helped shape a secular pan-Arab national identity and promoted education, modernisation, and unity among Arabs. His legacy continues to be celebrated in the Arab world and beyond.

Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, sought a unified Arab state

Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, also known as Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi, was the Sharif of Mecca from 1908 and the self-proclaimed King of the Hejaz from 1916 to 1924. He is often regarded as the father of modern pan-Arabism and played a pivotal role in the pursuit of a unified Arab state.

Hussein ibn Ali was born in 1853 or 1854 into the Hashemite dynasty, claiming direct descent from the Prophet Muhammad. His family had a long history in Mecca, having ruled the Sharifate of Mecca since the 11th century. Hussein's father, Sharif Ali bin Muhammad, was the former Sharif of Mecca, and his mother, Salah Bani-Shahar, was reportedly a Circassian.

In 1908, following the Young Turk Revolution, Hussein was appointed Sharif of Mecca by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II. However, his relationship with the Ottoman Empire soured due to their policies of Turkification and persecution of ethnic minorities, including Arabs. Hussein also opposed the settlement of Turkish colonists in Arab areas and the prohibition of the Arabic language in teaching.

During World War I, Hussein initially allied with the Ottomans, but he began secret negotiations with the British, encouraged by his son Abdullah, who had served in the Ottoman parliament. Hussein sought to liberate Arab lands from Turkish rule and establish a single independent and unified Arab state stretching from Syria in the north to Yemen in the south. This vision was rooted in the ancient traditions and culture of the Arab people and the upholding of Islamic ideals, including the protection of ethnic and religious minorities.

Hussein's aspirations aligned with those of Arab nationalists, who found in him and his Hashemite commanders the leadership they sought. In June 1916, Hussein proclaimed the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, accusing them of violating Islamic tenets and limiting the power of the sultan-caliph. The revolt was also fuelled by Hussein's personal ambitions and his dislike for his Ottoman overlords.

Hussein's four sons, Ali, Abdullah, Faisal, and Zeid, played crucial roles as field commanders during the revolt. They led the Arab Army against the Turks, with the support of the British and French. Despite the colonial powers' promises, they ultimately denied the Arabs their promised single unified Arab state. However, the effectiveness of the revolt led by Hussein resulted in the Hashemite family securing rule over modern Jordan, most of the Arabian Peninsula, and Syria.

Hussein's pursuit of a unified Arab state faced setbacks, including the invasion of the Kingdom of Hejaz by the Saudis in 1924, which led to his abdication. Additionally, he refused to ratify the Anglo-Hashemite Treaty, further isolating him and resulting in the loss of British support. Hussein's efforts to establish a unified Arab state under his leadership ultimately fell short, and he spent his final years in exile, first in Cyprus and then in Amman, where he died in 1931.

Syrian thinkers Constantin Zureiq, Sati' al-Husri, Zaki al-Arsuzi, and Michel Aflaq espoused a formalised Pan-Arab ideology

Pan-Arabism is a political movement that emerged in the mid-to-late nineteenth century and gained popularity in the 1950s and 1960s. It advocated for the unification of all Arab people in a single nation-state, consisting of all Arab countries in West Asia and North Africa. The origins of this movement are often attributed to the Nahda (Arab awakening or enlightenment) movement that flourished in the Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire in the late nineteenth century.

In the 1930s, a more formalised version of Pan-Arab ideology was espoused by Syrian thinkers Constantin Zureiq, Sati' al-Husri, Zaki al-Arsuzi, and Michel Aflaq. Al-Husri, an influential Arab nationalist thinker, played a significant role in promoting Arab nationalism through the educational system in Syria and Iraq. He believed that the basic elements of a nation were a shared language and history, rejecting the notion that religion or economic factors played a role in fostering nationalist sentiment.

Zaki al-Arsuzi, a Syrian philosopher, and sociologist, contributed significantly to the development of Ba'athism, a political movement closely associated with Pan-Arabism. He emphasised the importance of language in unifying the Arab Nation, arguing that Arabic, unlike Latin, is intuitive and naturally united with its meaning.

Michel Aflaq, another Syrian philosopher, and sociologist, is considered by many Ba'athists to be the principal founder of Ba'athist thought. He emphasised the need for unity, liberty, and a unique form of Arab socialism, criticising both capitalism and communism. Aflaq's ideas played a crucial role in the development of the Arab Ba'ath Party, which later merged with other parties to form the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party.

These Syrian thinkers played a pivotal role in shaping the formalised Pan-Arab ideology, influencing political movements and parties that advocated for the unification of Arab nations. Their contributions laid the foundation for a more structured and organised expression of Pan-Arabism in the mid-twentieth century.

Muammar Gaddafi attempted to unite Libya with other Arab nations

Muammar Gaddafi was a Libyan revolutionary, politician and political theorist who ruled Libya from 1969 until his assassination in 2011. Initially, Gaddafi was ideologically committed to Arab nationalism and Nasserism, the thought of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, whom Gaddafi regarded as his hero. Gaddafi became an Arab nationalist while at school and, later, founded a revolutionary group known as the Free Officers movement, which deposed the Western-backed Senussi monarchy of Idris in a 1969 coup.

Gaddafi's commitment to Arab nationalism and Nasserism is evident in his attempts to unite Libya with other Arab nations. In 1970, he expressed dissatisfaction with Egypt's handling of the Middle East crisis, calling for a collective, pan-Arab strategy against Israel. In the same year, he attempted to unite Libya with Egypt, which he deemed a matter of "life and death". In 1971, Gaddafi visited Tunis and, in a rally, spoke of supporting a union between Libya and Tunisia. In 1974, Gaddafi and Tunisian President Habib Bourguiba signed the Djerba Declaration, committing the two states to becoming a single state, to be named the Arab Islamic Republic. However, the agreement fell through as Tunisia reconsidered the deal, not wanting to give up its sovereignty.

Gaddafi also sought union with other Arab nations, including Chad, Egypt, Sudan and Syria. In 1970, Gaddafi and Anwar Sadat, who had succeeded Nasser as Egypt's president, signed an unofficial charter of merger, but it was never implemented. In 1971, Gaddafi sided with Sadat against the Soviet Union in the Sudanese coup d'état and, in 1972, dispatched Libyan fighter jets to force down a British Airways jetliner carrying the leading coup plotters. In 1973, Gaddafi proclaimed the need for a single Arab state stretching across North Africa and the Middle East. In 1974, Gaddafi proposed a political union with five neighbouring Arab states, although without success.

In the late 1970s, Gaddafi's focus shifted from Arab nationalism to his own Third International Theory, which he summarised in three short volumes published between 1975 and 1979, collectively known as The Green Book. This approach regarded both the US and the Soviet Union as imperialist and rejected Western capitalism and Marxist-Leninist atheism. Gaddafi's interest in Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism waned further in the 1990s, as he became frustrated by the failure of his pan-Arab ideals and the refusal of the Arab world to challenge the international air embargo imposed on Libya. From 1997 to 2000, Libya initiated cooperative agreements or bilateral aid arrangements with 10 African states, and Gaddafi became one of the founders of the African Union, initiated in 2002.

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